Introduction

Evidence of the gradual transition from seasonal wandering to a settled existence is well documented in the archaeological record of our region. Numerous prehistoric sites, particularly within the Great Rift Valley, clearly illustrate some of humanity's earliest steps toward urban life. The adoption of innovations, such as the domestication and breeding of animals, the cultivation of domesticated grain crops, the extensive use of water resources, and the development of new technologies such as pottery making and basket weaving were all key steps in the transformation of early hunter-gatherers into settled villagers. Along with these advances, new building methods and designs were adopted, particularly the use of dried clay for construction and the shift from circular to rectangular house plans.

The most famous example of early village life in the Jordan Rift is Tell es-Sultan, located on the outskirts of modern Jericho, a settled community dating back to 8000 BCE that featured an impressive circular watchtower and sophisticated fortification walls. Likewise, excavations at the site of Ain Ghazal, strategically located near the Ghazal Springs and Zarqa River, near modern Amman, have revealed a settlement dating to 7300 BCE which was continually occupied for nearly 2000 years. Architectural remains discovered there include domestic structures, burial caves, and temples. Similar archaeological evidence was also discovered at Sha'ar HaGolan, south of Tiberias, near the banks of the Yarmouk River.

These sites offer a glimpse at the origins of village life throughout the region, paving the way for the foundation of the urban centres of later periods.

In contrast to the cuneiform scripts of Mesopotamia and Egyptian hieroglyphics, the evolution of a purely phonetic alphabet in our region was one of the great intellectual achievements of human history. The first alphabets emerged around 1800 BCE, as a means of representing the language used by Semitic workers in Sinai. These early Proto-Sinaitic scripts remained of marginal importance for several centuries, but towards the end of the Bronze Age, regional variants arose, including the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (ca. 1400 BCE), the Byblos syllabary, and the South Arabian alphabet (ca. 1200 BCE).

Evidence of early writing in this region can be divided into several types of documents, with representative examples of each:

Earliest use of the alphabet:  The Lachish/Tel al-Duwier Ewer, Izbet Sartah Abecedary, and Gezer/ Tel Abu Shusha Calendar provide important evidence on the evolution of alphabetic scripts.

Early evidence of administrative record keeping:  The Tell Deir Alla Tablet, Samaria Ostraca, Arad Ostraca shed important light on the development of economic, political, and bureaucratic institutions. At Tel Arad a mid 7th century BCE ostracon containing entries about commodities was found with integrated Hebrew and Egyptian Hieratic writing, evidence of the extensive trade of the region and the bi-lingual capacity of the population.

Early Historical Inscriptions: The Tel Dan/ Tel al-Qadi Inscription, the Mesha Stele at Dhiban, and the Silwan/Shiloah Inscription in Jerusalem offer unique testimony about events in the Kingdoms of Israel, Moab, and Judah in the 9th-8th centuries BCE

Early Religious Writings:  The Tell Deir Alla Balaam Inscription, the Ketef Hinnom amulet, and the Dead Sea Scrolls offer unique evidence of religious beliefs, traditions, and literature from the Late Iron Age to the Roman Period.

These selected examples display the range of literary, religious and official writing used in our region throughout antiquity.

In the first half of the third century CE, the process of urbanization in the Roman East reached its zenith. The remains of the dozens of cities from this period can be seen as an important part of our region’s shared heritage.

Sebastia exemplifies this process of urbanization. Its walls, gates, stadium, and a magnificent temple were built by King Herod (37-4 BCE). At the end of the second century CE, the city was expanded under the rule of Septimus Severus with the construction of street arcades of over 800 metresand other temples and public buildings. An enormous basilica was added in the Crusader period.

Similar developments took place in the Decapolis cities of Scythopolis/Beit Shean/ Beisan and Pella. Archaeological excavations at Scythopolis revealed the dramatic changes to the city centre with arcades, a theatre, and an amphitheatre together with other public buildings such as edifices for entertainment and bath houses to enhance the pleasures of the citizens.

Pella, of which some spectacular ruins remain, developed during the Roman period on Hellenistic foundations. The city was the site of one of Christianity's earliest churches. Both Pella and Scythopolis came to an abrupt end in the massive Jordan Rift earthquake of 749 CE.

These great cities, located on the sites of earlier urban centres, embodied the collective memories of the people of the region. Although reaching their zenith during the Roman and Byzantine periods, they nevertheless continued to have influence and play an important role in the lives of the surrounding communities in later periods.

The use of caves for shelter, burial, and religious purposes is a longstanding element of our region’s heritage. Early humans first settled in caves for the natural defense against the elements. Later, caves were associated with religious mystics who occupied grottos, often in isolated mountainous areas, to engage in solitary mediation or escape religious persecution. Indeed, caves have provided rich evidence of a wide range of human activities throughout antiquity.

There are hundreds of caves extending over a large area in the Shfela region, east of Qiriat Gat. They were used by early communities not only for living but also for burial, storage, and quarrying and continuously throughout the Roman, Byzantine and early Islamic periods.

The Qumran caves, near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea became famous with the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, a large collection of liturgical, legal, apocalyptic writings from the Late Hellenistic and Early Roman periods, including the earliest known Biblical texts.

Lot's Cave, situated in the southern Jordan River Valley overlooking the eastern shore of the Dead Sea near Safi, is a natural cave associated by tradition with the place where the Biblical figure Lot and his daughters sought refuge after the destruction of Sodom. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of the cave's habitation from 3000 BC. During the seventh century CE a beautiful Byzantine basilica was built in the front of the cave, emphasizing its religious significance.

These and other historical caves offer unique testimony to human adaptation and survival in dramatically different climatic zones of the region.

As a seat of power in every historical period, the palace was an important ancient building type throughout the region, often built on a grand scale to impress the local population. While each period boasted distinctive forms of palaces, two of the most impressive were the Herodian and Umayyad palaces.

King Herod of Judea (37-4 BCE) was a key player in the process of Romanization that prevailed over the region. During his reign, Herod built impressive desert fortresses and palaces that guarded his kingdom from the East, including Machaerus (Makawer), on the eastern side of the Jordan Valley; Herodium, a winter palace and Herod’s burial place, east of Bethlehem; and the mountain fortress of Masada on the western shore of the Dead Sea. All demonstrate the ability of Herod’s architects to adapt Roman building technology to the local reality.

The Umayyad Dynasty (661-750 CE) constructed a series of palaces in the Jordan Desert, the most ambitious, although never completed, being Qaser al Mushatta. Its vaulting systems are considered essentially Eastern, while the stonemasonry and carved decoration show Byzantine influence. Other Umayyad desert palace sites include Qaser al-Hir al-Gharbi, Qaser al-Harrana, and Qusir Umrah. In the Jordan Valley are the Hisham palace, Mina palace, and Qaser al-Sunabour. The Dar al-Imara palace was built in Jerusalem south of the Aqsa mosque. These palaces included residences for Umayyad princes, agricultural fields and workshops.

The palaces of the Herodian and Umayyad periods reflected distinctive contemporary culture, yet shared many elements including water installations, defensive walls, open courtyards and luxurious bathhouses.

In the Byzantine period, Palaestina evolved into one of the major centres of the Christian world. Many of the monasteries and churches built during this era still stand out in the local landscape and exemplify an important channel for the transmission of ideas and outside influences into the region. Many priests and pilgrims arriving in the Holy Land from all over the Empire and Christian world made their way to the sacred Christian sites and religious communities that were spread throughout the land. The monasteries and monastic churches that were established from the fourth to seventh century CE are thus an integral part of the local cultural heritage.

Of the numerous examples, several prominent exemplars emerge. One of the most famous monasteries was founded by St. Sabas from Cappadocia in Asia Minor, who arrived in the Judean/Al Quds Desert in the later half of the fifth century. He established a series of monasteries, the most remarkable of which was Mar Saba, which has existed continually since its establishment and has devoutly maintained its orthodox tradition.

The desert was an attractive place to engage in religious meditation and remains of over twenty monasteries have been discovered in the Negev, most of them developed within the confines of the desert cities. At Subeita/Shivta, the remains of three churches have been uncovered, indicating the importance of the desert monastic life.

East of the Jordan River, many remains of monasteries exist, such as Deir el-Kattar el-Byzanti, located on the southeastern shore of the Dead Sea.

From the 11th-15th centuries CE, the ongoing conflict between European Crusaders and various Muslim dynasties and military leaders led to an unprecedented intensity of fortress construction throughout the entire Levant. In their mixture of building styles and engineering achievements, these extraordinary and impressive strongholds symbolize the military clashes and interaction of cultures that took place during this period.

The fortresses constructed by the Crusaders were located throughout their kingdom and along its borders, guarding strategic military and trade routes. In architectural conception, they, like contemporary Islamic fortresses, embodied the domination of space with thick walls, towers, fortifications, indirect entrances, loopholes, machicolations, battered walls, and moats. These defenses, built to ensure security for the local populations as well as provide strategic defense points, were constructed with a combination of local materials and European methods of building, under the influence of Muslim and local architecture.

During the Muslim military campaigns against the Crusaders, many European architectural elements were adopted and adapted, merging styles, as can be seen in Ajloun or Kalat Nimrod/ al-Subeiba. Likewise, the Crusader fortresses at Kerak, one of the largest and most impressive fortresses in the region which overlooks the eastern shore of the Dead Sea, and that at Belvoir, in eastern Galilee overlooking the Jordan Valley, are impressive in their command of the main roads. The Jifna stronghold, north of Jerusalem, represents the combination of a settlement with a fortress. It is located at an important crossroad on the mountain road, which connected many areas of the region.

The region's location at the intersection of three continents naturally positioned it as an important trade entrepot on several of the world's great historic trade routes. Two of the main historical trade routes in the region are the coastal route, the Via Maris, and the mountain routes. Both were used for trade, military operations, and communication. The various world powers and empires that vied for control of these trade routes left a long and varied imprint on the local built landscape with the construction of elaborate caravanserais or khans.

Located either within city centres or at outposts on the main trade and pilgrimage routes, the khans were constructed to provide a safe place for the travelers and their livestock to rest in the course of their journey, as well as to provide commercial space for traders to exchange goods and information. Khans located outside urban centres often featured extensive defense systems such as fortified walls and towers. Moreover, they had to provide essential services such as a year round water supply, storage halls, and accommodation for traders, pilgrims, postmen and travelers. As trade increased, some khans became the core of expanding towns, such as Khan Yunis in southern Gaza.

The Umayyad caliph, Caliph Omar ben Abd al-Aziz is credited with the construction of the first khans. During the Mamluk period, which is considered the golden age for the development and construction of khans in our region, khans were built along the major trade routes at intervals reachable in a single day's travel or about 30 kilometres.